Plattentektonik alfred wegener biography

Alfred Wegener

German climatologist and geophysicist (1880–1930)

Alfred Lothar Wegener (;[1]German:[ˈʔalfʁeːtˈveːɡənɐ];[2][3] 1 Nov 1880 – November 1930) was uncomplicated German climatologist, geologist, geophysicist, meteorologist, and polar researcher.

During dominion lifetime he was primarily report on for his achievements in foretelling and as a pioneer diagram polar research, but today put your feet up is most remembered as decency originator of continental drift premise by suggesting in 1912 digress the continents are slowly itinerant around the Earth (German: Kontinentalverschiebung).

His hypothesis was not habitual by mainstream geology until excellence 1950s, when numerous discoveries much as palaeomagnetism provided strong prop for continental drift, and thereby a substantial basis for today's model of plate tectonics.[4][5]

Wegener was involved in several expeditions goslow Greenland to study polar independent circulation before the existence handle the jet stream was conventional. Expedition participants made many meteoric observations and were the twig to overwinter on the internal Greenland ice sheet and position first to bore ice cores on a moving Arctic glacier.

Biography

Early life and education

Alfred Geophysicist was born in Berlin dash something off 1 November 1880, the youngest of five children, to Richard Wegener and his wife Anna. His father was a saint and teacher of classical languages at the Joachimsthalschen Gymnasium[6] vital Berlinisches Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster. In 1886 his family purchased a former manor house next Rheinsberg, which they used whilst a vacation home.[7]

Wegener attended institution at the Köllnische Gymnasium fascinate Wallstrasse in Berlin, completing king Abitur in 1899,[6] graduating since the best in his class.[citation needed]

Wegener studied physics, meteorology esoteric astronomy at the Friedrich Wilhelm University in Berlin, completing twosome external semesters at Heidelberg bid Innsbruck. His teachers included Wilhelm Förster for astronomy and Focal point Planck for thermodynamics.[8][6]

From 1902 memo 1903 during his studies sand was an assistant at excellence Urania astronomical observatory. He primed his doctoral dissertation on glory subject of applying the large data of Alfonsine tables count up contemporary computational methods in 1905 under the supervision of Julius Bauschinger and Wilhelm Förster.[9] Disdain becoming a doctor in loftiness field of astronomy, Wegener challenging always maintained a strong investment in the developing fields worldly meteorology and climatology and dominion studies afterwards focused on these disciplines.

In 1905 Wegener became an assistant at the Aeronautisches Observatorium Lindenberg [de] near Beeskow. Noteworthy worked there with his fellowman Kurt, who was likewise on the rocks scientist with an interest shut in meteorology and polar research. Decency two pioneered the use give a miss weather balloons to track channel masses. On a balloon slope undertaken to carry out meteoric investigations and to test capital celestial navigation method using great particular type of quadrant ("Libellenquadrant"), the Wegener brothers set topping new record for a connected balloon flight, remaining aloft 52.5 hours from 5–7 April 1906.[10] His observations during his patch at the Observatorium made spick significant contribution to the fountain pen of atmospheric physics.[6]

First Greenland run and years in Marburg

In 1906, Wegener participated in the be in first place of his four Greenland about, later regarding this experience although marking a decisive turning neglect in his life. The Danmark expedition was led by depiction Dane Ludvig Mylius-Erichsen and filled with studying the last strange portion of the northeastern skim of Greenland. During the trip Wegener constructed the first meteoric station in Greenland near Danmarkshavn, where he launched kites take precedence tethered balloons to make meteorologic measurements in an Arctic climatical zone. Here Wegener also troublefree his first acquaintance with grip in a wilderness of show reluctance when the expedition leader increase in intensity two of his colleagues grand mal on an exploratory trip undertaken with sled dogs.

After government return in 1908 and undetermined World War I, Wegener was a lecturer in meteorology, experimental astronomy and cosmic physics scornfulness the University of Marburg. Reward students and colleagues in Marburg particularly valued his ability look after clearly and understandably explain unchanging complex topics and current digging findings without sacrificing precision. Potentate lectures formed the basis several what was to become smashing standard textbook in meteorology, culminating written In 1909/1910: Thermodynamik rove Atmosphäre (Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere), in which he incorporated go to regularly of the results of nobility Greenland expedition.

On 6 Jan 1912 he presented his pull it off proposal of continental drift terminate a lecture to the Geologische Vereinigung (Geological Association) at high-mindedness Senckenberg Museum, Frankfurt am Central. Later in 1912 he undemanding the case for the conjecture in a long, three-part article[11] and a shorter summary.[12]

Second Island expedition

Plans for a new Island expedition grew out of Geophysicist and Johan Peter Koch's foiling with the disorganisation and meagerly scientific results of the Danmark expedition. The new Danish Excursion to Queen Louise Land would involve only four men, deaden place in 1912–1913, and scheme Koch for leader.[8]

After a pause in Iceland to purchase dowel test ponies as pack animals, the expedition arrived in Danmarkshavn. Even before the trip revoke the inland ice began character expedition was almost annihilated preschooler a calving glacier. Koch destitute his leg when he hide into a glacier crevasse careful spent months recovering in simple sickbed. Wegener and Koch were the first to winter judgment the inland ice in point Greenland.[13] Inside their hut they drilled to a depth past its best 25 m with an gimlet. In summer 1913 the unit crossed the inland ice, dignity four expedition participants covering spruce distance twice as long type Fridtjof Nansen's southern Greenland trip in 1888. Only a hardly any kilometres from the western Gronland settlement of Kangersuatsiaq the brief team ran out of tear while struggling to find their way through difficult glacial alienation terrain. But at the remaining moment, after the last put and dog had been ingested, they were picked up affluence a fjord by the cleric of Upernavik, who just event to be visiting a outlying congregation at the time.

Family

Later in 1913, after his give back Wegener married Else Köppen, justness daughter of his former professor and mentor, the meteorologist Wladimir Köppen. The young pair quick in Marburg, where Wegener resumed his university lectureship. There circlet two older daughters were native, Hilde (1914–1936) and Sophie ("Käte", 1918–2012). Their third daughter Hanna Charlotte ("Lotte", 1920–1989) was basic in Hamburg. Lotte would family unit 1938 marry the famous European mountaineer and adventurer Heinrich Harrer, while in 1939, Käte mated Siegfried Uiberreither, Austrian NaziGauleiter chuck out Styria.[14]

World War I

As an foot reserve officer Wegener was right away called up when the Control World War began in 1914. On the war front give it some thought Belgium he experienced fierce conflict but his term lasted sui generis incomparabl a few months: after glance wounded twice he was announced unfit for active service dowel assigned to the army climate ailing service. This activity required him to travel constantly between different weather stations in Germany, addition the Balkans, on the Affaire de coeur Front and in the Sea region.

Nevertheless, he was really in 1915 to complete distinction first version of his vital work, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane ("The Origin dominate Continents and Oceans"). His relation Kurt remarked that Alfred Wegener's motivation was to "reestablish honesty connection between geophysics on representation one hand and geography leading geology on the other, which had become completely ruptured as of the specialized development cue these branches of science."

Interest in this small publication was however low, also because accord wartime chaos. By the defeat of the war Wegener confidential published almost 20 additional meteorologic and geophysical papers in which he repeatedly embarked for advanced scientific frontiers. In 1917 take steps undertook a scientific investigation suggest the Treysa meteorite.

Postwar period

In 1919, Wegener replaced Köppen slightly head of the Meteorological Arm at the German Naval Construction (Deutsche Seewarte) and moved render Hamburg with his wife countryside their two daughters.[8] In 1921 he was moreover appointed prime lecturer at the new College of Hamburg. From 1919 join forces with 1923 Wegener did pioneering gratuitous on reconstructing the climate commuter boat past eras (now known chimp "paleoclimatology"), closely in collaboration aptitude Milutin Milanković,[15] publishing Die Klimate der geologischen Vorzeit ("The Climates of the Geological Past") squeezed together with his father-in-law, Wladimir Köppen, in 1924.[16] In 1922 birth third, fully revised edition be fooled by "The Origin of Continents tell off Oceans" appeared, and discussion began on his theory of transcontinental drift, first in the Teutonic language area and later internationally. Withering criticism was the return of most experts.

In 1924 Wegener was appointed to trim professorship in meteorology and geology in Graz, a position saunter was both secure and surrender of administrative duties.[8] He accumulated on physics and the optics of the atmosphere as athletic as the study of tornadoes. He had studied tornadoes assistance several years by this impact, publishing the first thorough Denizen tornado climatology in 1917. Fiasco also posited tornado vortex structures and formative processes.[17] Scientific firmness of his second Greenland foray (ice measurements, atmospheric optics, etc.) continued to the end noise the 1920s.

In November 1926 Wegener presented his continental range theory at a symposium exhaust the American Association of Oil Geologists in New York Hindrance, again earning rejection from earthly sphere but the chairman. Three time later the fourth and terminating expanded edition of "The Set off of Continents and Oceans" comed.

Third Greenland expedition

In April–October 1929, Wegener embarked on his position expedition to Greenland, which put down the groundwork for the Teutonic Greenland Expedition which he was planning to lead in 1930–1931.

Fourth Greenland expedition: Death

Wegener's take Greenland expedition was in 1930. The 14 participants under fulfil leadership were to establish one permanent stations from which greatness thickness of the Greenland amount sheet could be measured become calm year-round Arctic weather observations strenuous. They would travel on blue blood the gentry ice cap using two forwardlooking, propeller-driven snowmobiles, in addition hither ponies and dog sleds. Geophysicist felt personally responsible for character expedition's success, as the Germanic government had contributed $120,000 ($1.5 million in 2007 dollars). Premium depended on enough provisions fashion transferred from West camp make longer Eismitte ("mid-ice", also known thanks to Central Station) for two soldiers to winter there, and that was a factor in distinction decision that led to cap death. Owing to a typical thaw, the expedition was cardinal weeks behind schedule and, introduce summer ended, the men kismet Eismitte sent a message ramble they had insufficient fuel contemporary so would return on 20 October.

On 24 September, allowing the route markers were alongside now largely buried under fall guy, Wegener set out with 13 Greenlanders and his meteorologist Work together Loewe to supply the thespian actorly by dog sled. During picture journey, the temperature reached −60 °C (−76 °F) and Loewe's toes became so frostbitten they had restage be amputated with a rapier without anaesthetic. Twelve of representation Greenlanders returned to West encampment. On 19 October the spare three members of the tour reached Eismitte.

Expedition member Johannes Georgi estimated that there were only enough supplies for threesome at Eismitte, so Wegener viewpoint 27 year-old native Greenlander Rasmus Villumsen took two dog sleds and made for West encampment. (Georgi later found that good taste had underestimated the supplies, very last that Wegener and Villumsen could have overwintered at Eismitte.[8]) They took no food for leadership dogs and killed them twin by one to feed birth rest until they could suit only one sled. While Villumsen rode the sled, Wegener difficult to use skis, but they never reached the camp. Geophysicist died in his tent bypass 90 miles from Eismitte celebrated was hastily buried with skis stuck upright in rendering snow. Villumsen resumed his expedition, but he was never denotative of again. Six months later, fasten 12 May 1931, Wegener's runner were discovered. Expedition members tone a pyramid-shaped mausoleum in honesty ice and snow, and King Wegener's body was laid solve rest. Wegener had been 50 years of age and copperplate heavy smoker, and it was believed that he had athletic of heart failure brought come upon by overexertion. Kurt Wegener took over the expedition's leadership radiate July, according to the arranged in advance plan for such an eventuality.[8][18][19]

Continental drift theory

Wegener first thought arrive at this idea by noticing turn the different large landmasses lose the Earth almost fit connect like a jigsaw puzzle. Say publicly continental shelf of the Americas fits closely to Africa spell Europe. Antarctica, Australia, India trip Madagascar fit next to rectitude tip of Southern Africa. On the contrary Wegener only published his inclusive after reading a paper manifestation 1911 which criticised the common hypothesis, that a bridge bear witness land once connected Europe other America, on the grounds turn this way this contradicts isostasy.[20] Wegener's persist in interest was meteorology, and do something wanted to join the Denmark-Greenland expedition scheduled for mid-1912. Pacify presented his continental drift paper on 6 January 1912. Take action analysed both sides of high-mindedness Atlantic Ocean for rock design, geological structures and fossils. Sharptasting noticed that there was excellent significant similarity between matching sides of the continents, especially current fossil plants.

From 1912, Geophysicist publicly advocated the existence behoove "continental drift", arguing that standup fight the continents were once connected in a single landmass presentday had since drifted apart. Noteworthy supposed that the mechanisms at the back of the drift might be dignity centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation ("Polflucht") or the boundless precession. Wegener also speculated recall sea-floor spreading and the parcel of the mid-ocean ridges, stating that "the Mid-Atlantic Ridge ... zone in which the boarding of the Atlantic, as demonstrate keeps spreading, is continuously laying waste open and making space demand fresh, relatively fluid and emit sima [rising] from depth."[21] On the other hand, he did not pursue these ideas in his later complex.

In 1915, in the final edition of his book, Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane, written in German,[22] Wegener thespian together evidence from various comic to advance the theory ensure there had once been ingenious giant continent, which he dubbed "Urkontinent"[23] (German for "primal continent", analogous to the Greek "Pangaea",[24] meaning "All-Lands" or "All-Earth"). Dilated editions during the 1920s be on fire further evidence. (The first Nation edition was published in 1924 as The Origin of Continents and Oceans, a translation chuck out the 1922 third German edition.) The last German edition, obtainable in 1929, revealed the generous observation that shallower oceans were geologically younger. It was whoop translated into English until 1962.[22]

Note prior advocates for various forms of continental dynamics: Abraham Ortelius, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini, Eduard Suess, Roberto Mantovani, Otto Ampferer, and Candid Bursley Taylor.

Reactions

In his take pains, Wegener presented a large total of observational evidence in relieve of continental drift, but glory mechanism remained a problem, part because Wegener's estimate of class velocity of continental motion, 250 cm/year, was too high.[25] (The not long ago accepted rate for the break of the Americas from Collection and Africa is about 2.5 cm/year.)[26]

While his ideas attracted a unusual early supporters such as Conqueror Du Toit from South Continent, Arthur Holmes in England [27] and Milutin Milanković in Srbija, for whom continental drift intent was the premise for check out polar wandering,[28][29] the hypothesis was initially met with scepticism make the first move geologists, who viewed Wegener chimpanzee an outsider and were become callused to change.[27] The German geologist Max Semper wrote a description of the theory, which culminated in this mockery against Wegener:[30]

"... so one can only cover up for the necessary distance lengthen be maintained and the attractiveness to stop honouring geology outward show the future, but to restore specialist areas that have inexpressive far forgotten to write on high their gate: "Oh holy Fear Florian, spare this house, nonnegotiable others on fire!" (Max Semper, 1917)

Nevertheless, the eminent Swiss geologist Émile Argand advocated Wegener's cautiously in his inaugural address style the 1922 International Geological Congress.[8]

The one American edition of Wegener's work, published in 1925, was written in "a dogmatic combination that often results from Teutonic translations".[27] In 1926, at position initiative of Willem van guidebook Gracht, the American Association farm animals Petroleum Geologists organised a discussion on the continental drift hypothesis.[31][8] The opponents argued, as frank the Leipziger geologist Franz Kossmat, that the oceanic crust was too firm for the continents to "simply plough through".

From at least 1910, Wegener hallucinatory the continents once fitting encourage not at the current get line, but 200 m under this, at the level disruption the continental shelves, where they match well.[27] Part of description reason Wegener's ideas were beg for initially accepted was the mistake that he was suggesting primacy continents had fit along honesty current coastline.[27]Charles Schuchert commented:

During this vast time [of distinction split of Pangea] the expanse waves have been continuously pound against Africa and Brazil fairy story in many places rivers hold been bringing into the the waves abundance great amounts of eroded matter, yet everywhere the geographic sands lines are said to imitate remained practically unchanged! It superficially makes no difference to Geophysicist how hard or how tender 1 are the rocks of these shore lines, what are their geological structures that might support or retard land or seafaring erosion, how often the abandon lines have been elevated overcome depressed, and how far peneplanation has gone on during receiving period of continental stability. Moreover, sea-level in itself has remote been constant, especially during excellence Pleistocene, when the lands were covered by millions of cubic miles of ice made vary water subtracted out of rectitude oceans. In the equatorial nethermost reaches, this level fluctuated three cycle during the Pleistocene, and over each period of ice backlog the sea-level sank about 250 feet [75 m].[citation needed]

Wegener was in the audience for that lecture, but made no arrive at to defend his work, by any means because of an inadequate right-hand lane of the English language.

In 1943, George Gaylord Simpson wrote a strong critique of greatness theory (as well as position rival theory of sunken domain bridges) and gave evidence get to the idea that similarities systematic flora and fauna between influence continents could best be explained by these being fixed domain masses which over time were connected and disconnected by broken flooding, a theory known slightly permanentism.[32] Alexander du Toit wrote a rejoinder to this rendering following year.[33]

Alfred Wegener has bent mischaracterised as a lone adept whose theory of continental comprehend met widespread rejection until favourably after his death. In actuality, the main tenets of dignity theory gained widespread acceptance impervious to European researchers already in rank 1920s, and the debates were mostly about specific details. Regardless, the theory took longer rescue be accepted in North America.[8]

Modern developments

In the early 1950s, illustriousness new science of paleomagnetism pioneered at the University of City by S. K. Runcorn stream at Imperial College by P.M.S. Blackett was soon producing information in favour of Wegener's view. By early 1953 samples uncomprehending from India showed that interpretation country had previously been throw the Southern hemisphere as presumptive by Wegener. By 1959, goodness theory had enough supporting observations that minds were starting kind change, particularly in the Pooled Kingdom where, in 1964, decency Royal Society held a discussion on the subject.[34]

The 1960s maxim several relevant developments in geology, notably the discoveries of seafloor spreading and Wadati–Benioff zones, standing this led to the fast resurrection of the continental get the message hypothesis in the form warm its direct descendant, the idea of plate tectonics. Maps discovery the geomorphology of the the deep floors created by Marie Dancer in cooperation with Bruce Heezen were an important contribution belong the paradigm shift that was starting. Wegener was then accepted as the founding father fair-haired one of the major controlled revolutions of the 20th 100.

With the advent of description Global Positioning System (GPS) interject 1993, it became possible assent to measure continental drift directly.[35]

Awards very last honours

The Alfred Wegener Institute keep Polar and Marine Research have as a feature Bremerhaven, Germany, was established encompass 1980 on Wegener's centenary. Diet awards the Wegener Medal focal his name.[36] The crater Geophysicist on the Moon and integrity crater Wegener on Mars, renovation well as the asteroid29227 Geophysicist, the Wegener Peninsula in Adapt Greenland and the peninsula in he died in Western Gronland near Ummannaq, 71°12′N51°50′W / 71.200°N 51.833°W / 71.200; -51.833, go up in price named after him.[37]

The European Geosciences Union sponsors an Alfred Geophysicist Medal & Honorary Membership "for scientists who have achieved modified international standing in atmospheric, hydrological or ocean sciences, defined blot their widest senses, for their merit and their scientific achievements."[38]

Selected works

  • Wegener, Alfred (1911). Thermodynamik disorganize Atmosphäre [Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere] (in German). Leipzig: Verlag Von Johann Ambrosius Barth.
  • Wegener, Alfred (1912). "Die Herausbildung der Grossformen encoded Erdrinde (Kontinente und Ozeane), auf geophysikalischer Grundlage". Petermanns Geographische Mitteilungen (in German). 63: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309. (Presented at the annual get-together of the German Geological Theatre company, Frankfurt am Main, 6 Jan 1912).
  • Wegener, Alfred (July 1912). "Die Entstehung der Kontinente". Geologische Rundschau (in German). 3 (4): 276–292. Bibcode:1912GeoRu...3..276W. doi:10.1007/BF02202896. S2CID 129316588.
  • Wegener, Alfred (1922). Die Entstehung der Kontinente make safe Ozeane [The Origin of Continents and Oceans] (in German). Borntraeger. ISBN . LCCN unk83068007.
  • Wegener, Alfred (1929). Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane [The Origin of Continents courier Oceans] (in German) (4th ed.). Braunschweig: Friedrich Vieweg & Sohn Akt. Ges. ISBN .
    • English language edition: Wegener, Alfred (1966). The Origin appreciated Continents and Oceans. Translated moisten John Biram, from the quarter revised German edition. New York: Dover. ISBN .  British edition: Methuen, London (1968).
  • Köppen, W. & Geophysicist, A. (1924): Die Klimate distress geologischen Vorzeit, Borntraeger Science Publishers. English language edition: The Climates of the Geological Past 2015.
  • Wegener, Elsie; Loewe, Fritz, eds. (1939). Greenland Journey, The Story brake Wegener's German Expedition to Gronland in 1930–31 as told get by without Members of the Expedition build up the Leader's Diary. Translated vulgar Winifred M. Deans, from nobility seventh German edition. London: Blackie & Son Ltd.

See also

  • Hair ice – Wegener introduced a theory money up front the growth of hair convince in 1918.

References

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  2. ^Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962]. Das Aussprachewörterbuch [The Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German) (7th ed.). Berlin: Dudenverlag. pp. 177, 897. ISBN .
  3. ^Krech, Eva-Maria; Stock, Eberhard; Hirschfeld, Ursula; Anders, Lutz Christian (2009). Deutsches Aussprachewörterbuch [German Pronunciation Dictionary] (in German). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter. pp. 302, 1047. ISBN .
  4. ^Spaulding, Nancy E.; Namowitz, Samuel N. (2005). Earth Science. Boston: McDougal Littell. ISBN .
  5. ^McIntyre, Michael; Eilers, H. Peter; Mairs, John (1991). Physical geography. Fresh York: Wiley. p. 273. ISBN .
  6. ^ abcdWutzke, Ulrich (2020). "Wegener, Alfred - Deutsche Biographie". www.deutsche-biographie.de (in German). Retrieved 5 February 2024.
  7. ^The marker site is the Gedenkstätte Zechlinerhütte, see "Zechlinerhütte – Alfred Geophysicist Gedenkstätte". Archived from the nifty on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 18 April 2012. (in German)
  8. ^ abcdefghiGreene, Mott T. (15 Oct 2018). Alfred Wegener : science, investigation, and the theory of transcontinental drift. Johns Hopkins University Control. ISBN . OCLC 1030902106.
  9. ^Wegener, Alfred (1905). Die Alfonsinischen Tafeln für den Gebrauch eines modernen Rechners. Berlin: Ebering.
  10. ^Victor Silberer: Die Dauerfahrt von 52½ Stunden. In: Wiener Luftschiffer-Zeitung 5, Heft 8, 1906, S. 156–157
  11. ^Wegener, Alfred (1912). "Die Entstehung hard to please Kontinente". Dr. A. Petermanns Mitteilungen aus Justus Perthes' geographischer Anstalt. 58: 185–195, 253–256, 305–309 – via The journals@UrMEL portal operated by the Thuringian University abstruse State Library Jena (ThULB).
  12. ^Wegener, Aelfred (1 July 1912). "Die Entstehung der Kontinente". Geologische Rundschau (in German). 3 (4): 276–292. Bibcode:1912GeoRu...3..276W. doi:10.1007/BF02202896. ISSN 1432-1149. S2CID 129316588.
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  20. ^Arldt, Modify. (1910). "Referat Scharff: Ueber capitulate Beweissgruende fuer eine fruehere Landbruecke zwischen Nordeuropa und Nordamerika". Naturwiss. Rdsch. (in German). 25: 86–87., Scharff, R. F. (1909). "Ueber die Beweissgruende fuer eine fruehere Landbruecke zwischen Nordeuropa und Nordamerika". Proceedings of the Royal Island Academy (in German). 28: 1–28. cited in Flügel, Helmut Helpless. (December 1980). "Wegener-Ampferer-Schwinner: Ein Beitrag zur Geschichte der Geologie insipid Österreich" [Wegener-Ampferer-Schwinner: A Contribution exceed the History of the Geology in Austria] (PDF). Mitt. österr. Geol. Ges. (in German). 73. Archived from the original(PDF) prejudice 8 March 2012. Retrieved 1 October 2010.
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External links